Assessing the Accuracy of Sentinel-2A and the Van Hengel-Spitzer Algorithm for Bathymetry Mapping in Shallow Waters: A Case Study of Bokori Island, Indonesia
Main Article Content
Abstract
Multispectral remote sensing is a proven tool for mapping shallow waters, but accurately capturing seabed color signatures remains a significant challenge due to water- column effects, atmospheric interference, and complex interactions between inherent and apparent optical properties. Our study explores whether Sentinel-2A satellite imagery, processed with the Van Hengel-Spitzer (VHS) algorithm, offers a practical solution for bathymetric mapping. We collected field depth measurements using echo-sounders and adjusted these for tidal variations. Applying the VHS algorithm generated relative depths, which we then calibrated to absolute depths using a linear regression model based on our in-situ data. The results are promising: the combined VHS and Sentinel-2A approach delivered robust depth estimates down to 12 meters. The relationship between satellite-derived depths and in situ measurements was strong (R² = 0.683). When we tested accuracy, nearly 80% (79.66%) of the satellite estimates fell within ±3 meters of the actual depths. The data also showed higher precision, with 54.24% of estimates accurate within ±2 meters and 32.2% within just ±1 meter of the measured depths. These findings confirm that Sentinel-2A provides a viable option for moderately accurate, efficient bathymetric mapping in clear, shallow marine environments. This approach holds significant potential for supporting coastal zone management and environmental monitoring efforts.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
References
Agus, S.B., V.P. Siregar, S.B. Susilo, M.S. Sangadji, G.F. Tasirileleu and P.S. Budi. 2021. Mapping of shallow water bathymetry and reef geomorphology using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery in Genteng Besar and Genteng Kecil Island, Kepulauan Seribu. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 944(1): 012048. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/944/1/012048.
Ammirati, L., R. Chirico, D. Di Martire and N. Mondillo. 2022. Application of multispectral remote sensing for mapping flood-affected zones in the Brumadinho Mining District (Minas Gerais, Brasil). Remote Sensing 14(6): 1501. DOI: 10.3390/rs14061501.
Caballero, I. and R.P. Stumpf. 2020. Towards routine mapping of shallow bathymetry in environments with variable turbidity: Contribution of Sentinel-2A/B satellites mission. Remote Sensing 12(3): 1–23. DOI: 10.3390/rs12030451.
Calder, B.R. and L.A. Mayer. 2003. Automatic processing of high‐rate, high‐density multibeam echosounder data. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 4(6): 1–22. DOI: 10.1029/2002GC000486.
Chen, J., H. Song, Y. Guan, L.M. Pinheiro and M. Geng. 2018. Geological and oceanographic controls on seabed fluid escape structures in the northern Zhongjiannan Basin, South China Sea. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 168: 38–47. DOI: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.04.027.
Dematteis, N., D. Giordan, B. Crippa and O. Monserrat. 2022. Fast local adaptive multiscale image matching algorithm for remote sensing image correlation. Computers and Geosciences 159: 104988. DOI: 10.1016/j.cageo.2021.104988.
Evans, G. and M. Page. 2014. The planning and surveying of submarine cable routes. In: Submarine Cables. (eds. D.R. Burnett, R. Beckman and T.M. Davenport), pp. 91–122. Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, Netherlands.
Gatti, A. and A. Bertolini. 2015. Sentinel-2 products specification document. https://sentinel.esa.int/documents/247904/685211/Sentinel-2-Product-SpecificationsDocument. Cited 13 Jun 2024.
Green, E, P. Mumby, A. Edwards and C. Clark. 2000. Remote Sensing: Handbook for Tropical Coastal Management. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Place de Fontenoy, Paris, France. 316 pp.
Hanuransyah, M.R., A. Satriadi, K. Kunarso, E.B. Putra and J. Marwoto. 2020. Bathymetry and seabed morphology study for determination of ASDP shipping line in Tanjungsau Island Waters, Batam. Indonesian Journal of Oceanography 2(1): 2714–8726. DOI: 10.14710/ijoce.v2i1.7289.
Houma, F., R. Belkessa and N. Bachari. 2006. Contribution of multispectral satellite imagery to the bathymetric analysis of coastal sea bottom. Revue Des Énergies Renouvelables 9(3): 165–172.
Janowski, Ł., J. Tęgowski and J. Nowak. 2018. Seafloor mapping based on multibeam echosounder bathymetry and backscatter data using object-based image analysis: a case study from the Rewal site, the Southern Baltic. Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies 47(3): 248–259.
Jung, J., Y. Lee, J. Park and T.K. Yeu. 2022. Multi-modal sonar mapping of offshore cable lines with an autonomous surface vehicle. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 10(3): 361. DOI: 10.3390/jmse10030361.
Jupp, D.L.B. 1988. Background and extensions to depth of penetration (DOP) mapping in shallow coastal waters. Proceedings of the Symposium on Remote Sensing of the Coastal Zone Quensland 1988: 91–122.
Kobryn, H.T., L.E. Beckley and K. Wouters. 2022. Bathymetry derivatives and habitat data from hyperspectral imagery establish a high-resolution baseline for managing the Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. Remote Sensing 14(8): 1827. DOI: 10.3390/rs14081827.
Lu, H., Q. Liu, X. Liu and Y. Zhang. 2021. A survey of semantic construction and application of satellite remote sensing images and data. Journal of Organizational and End User Computing 33(6): 1–20.
Luca, C. 2016. From GIS to remote sensing semi automatic classification plugin. https://fromgistors.blogspot.com/p/semi-automaticclassificationplugin.html. Cited 30 Jan 2022.
Mahrad, B.E., A. Newton, J.D. Icely, I. Kacimi, S. Abalansa and M. Snoussi. 2020. Contribution of remote sensing technologies to a holistic coastal and marine environmental management framework: a review. Remote Sensing 12(14): 2313. DOI: 10.3390/rs12142313.
Mavraeidopoulos, A.K., A. Pallikaris and E. Oikonomou. 2017. Satellite derived bathymetry (SDB) and safety of navigation. The International Hydrographic Review 17: 7–19.
Mokhtar, K., L.F. Chuah, M.A. Abdullah, O. Oloruntobi, S.M.M. Ruslan, G. Albasher, A. Ali and M.S. Akhtar. 2023. Assessing coastal bathymetry and climate change impacts on coastal ecosystems using Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. Environmental Research 239: 117314. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117314.
Putri, J.C.A., M.A.Z. Fuad and M.A. As’Adi. 2018. Bathymetry mapping using Landsat 8 multyspectral data of Bangsring coastal area. Omni-Akuatika 14(1): 54–61.
Setiawan, K.T., T. Osawa and I.W. Nuarsa. 2014. Application of the van hengel and spitzer algorithm for the extraction of bathymetric information using landsat data. International Journal of Remote Sensing and Earth Sciences 11(1): 73–80.
Setiawan, K.T., D.B. Ginting, G. Winarso, M.D.M. Manessa, N. Anggraini, A. Julzarika, I. Effendi, S. Rosid and A.H. Supardjo. 2019. May. Development of bathymetry extraction model from SPOT 7 satellite image. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 284(1): 012032. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/284/1/012032.
Šiljeg, A., B. Cavrić, I. Marić and M. Barada. 2019. GIS modelling of bathymetric data in the construction of port terminals–An example of Vlaška channel in the Port of Ploče, Croatia. International Journal for Engineering Modelling 32(1): 17–37. DOI: 10.31534/engmod.2019.1.ri.01m.
Su, H., H. Liu, W. Lei, M. Philipi, W. Heyman and A. Beck. 2013. Geographically adaptive inversion model for improving bathymetric retrieval from multispectral satellite imagery. IEEE Transaction on Geosciences and Remote Sensing 52(1): 465–476. DOI: 10.1109/TGRS.2013.2241772.
Subarno, T., V.P. Siregar and S.B. Agus. 2015. Evaluation of Worldview-2 imagery for the estimation of the depth of the shallow waters of Kelapa-Harapan Island using a band ratio algorithm. Geoplanning: Journal of Geomatics and Planning 2(1): 30–37.
Sukmono, A., S. Aji, F.J. Amarrohman, N. Bashit and L.R. Saputra. 2022. The Extraction of Near-Shore Bathymetry using Sentinel-2A Satellite Imagery: Algorithms and Their Modifications. TEM Journal 11(1): 150–158. DOI: 10.18421/TEM111-17.
Takwir, A., V.P. Siregar and S. Wouthuyzen. 2013. Validation test of the JUPP algorithm for shallow water bathymetry mapping using alos imagery. Proceedings of the National Seminar “Strategies for Building a Maritime State" 2013: 136–144.
Van Hengel, W. and D. Spitzer. 1991. Multi-temporal water depth mapping by means of Landsat TM. International Journal of Remote Sensing 12(4): 703–712. DOI: 10.1080/01431169108929687.
Wu, T., J. Luo, L. Gao, et al. 2021. Geo-object-based vegetation mapping via machine learning methods with an intelligent sample collection scheme: A case study of Taibai Mountain, China. Remote Sensing 13(2): 249. DOI: 10.3390/rs13020249.
Yasir Haya, L.O.M. and M. Fujii. 2017. Mapping the change of coral reefs using remote sensing and in situ measurements: a case study in Pangkajene and Kepulauan Regency, Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia. Journal of Oceanography 73(5): 623–645. DOI: 10.1007/s10872-017-0422-4.
