Health Impacts of Volatile Organic Compounds in Pollution Control Zones of Industrial Areas: Historical, Current, and Future Perspectives
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Thailand’s Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate emits high levels of benzene and 1,3-butadiene, yet evidence on chronic health harms remains fragmented. We systematically searched for studies published between January 2005 and December 2024 evaluating long-term health outcomes linked to occupational or residential volatile organic compounds (VOCs) exposure. Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria; most involved petrochemical workers, and one-quarter focused on community residents living near industrial zones. Cross-sectional and registry-based designs predominated; heterogeneous exposure metrics precluded meta-analysis, so findings were narratively synthesized and bias appraised with Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies – of Exposures (ROBINS-E) tool. Consistent associations were found between benzene or 1,3-butadiene exposure and an increased risk of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), genotoxicity, and reduced white blood cells (WBC) counts. Over 75% of studies showed potential confounding or exposure misclassification; four were rated as high risk overall, highlighting methodological gaps. Nonetheless, post-2015 evidence supports a biologically plausible connection between sustained VOC exposure and carcinogenic, genotoxic, and haematotoxic outcomes. We recommend establishing a stricter regulatory tier for benzene and 1,3-butadiene in Rayong, which should include quarterly personal sampling, annual biomarker panels, integrated real-time and passive surveillance monitoring networks, and targeted maternal-child screening to protect vulnerable populations.
Article Details
References
Arora NK, Mishra I. United Nations sustainable development goals 2030 and environmental sustainability: race against time. Environ Sustain 2019; 2(4): 339-42.
Nakyai T, Polyong CP, Kongsombatsuk M, et al. Seasonal impact and meteorological factors affecting the distribution of volatile organic compound concentrations and health risk assessment inside and outside industrial estates: a case study of Rayong province, Thailand. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng 2025; 11: 101121.
Gao S, Zhang Z, Wang Q, et al. Emissions and health risk assessment of process-based volatile organic compounds of a representative petrochemical enterprise in East China. Air Qual Atmos Health 2022; 15: 1095-109.
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1,3-butadiene, ethylene oxide and vinyl halides. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2008; 97: 1-478.
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Benzene. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2018; 120: 1-380.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Health assessment of 1,3-butadiene. EPA/600/P-98/001F. Washington (DC): US EPA; 2002. Available at https://cfpub.epa.gov/ ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=54499, accessed on May 1, 2025.
Bollati V, Baccarelli A, Hou L, et al. Changes in DNA methylation patterns in subjects exposed to low-dose benzene. Cancer Res 2007; 67(3): 876-80.
Wang TS, Tian W, Fang Y, et al. Changes in miR-222 expression, DNA repair capacity and MDM2-p53 axis in association with low-dose benzene genotoxicity and hematotoxicity. Sci Total Environ 2021; 765: 142740.
Wang B, Xu S, Sun Q, et al. Let-7e-5p, a promising novel biomarker for benzene toxicity, is involved in benzene-induced hematopoietic toxicity through targeting caspase-3 and p21. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2022; 246: 114142.
Wang B, Xu S, Wang T, et al. LincRNA-p21 promotes p21-mediated cell-cycle arrest in benzene-induced hematotoxicity by sponging miRNA-17-5p. Environ Pollut 2022; 296: 118706.
Holland R, Khan MAH, Matthews JC, et al. Investigating the variation of benzene and 1,3-butadiene in the UK during 2000–2020. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19(19): 11904.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH manual of analytical methods. 5th ed. Cincinnati (OH): NIOSH, 2020: 935 p.
Guo X, Zhang L, Wang J, et al. Plasma metabolomics study reveals the critical metabolic signatures for benzene-induced hematotoxicity. JCI Insight 2022; 7(2): e154999.
Department of Disease Control, Thailand. Environmental and health situation report in Eastern Economic Corridor, 2020. Available at https://ddc.moph.go.th/doed/journal_detail.php?publish=10785, accessed on April 25, 2024
Rayong Provincial Public Health Office. Health Data Center (HDC): Rayong province statistics, 2024. Available at https://hdc.moph.go.th/ ryg/public/main, accessed on Mar 28, 2025.
Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021; 372: n71.
Ouzzani M, Hammady H, Fedorowicz Z, et al. Rayyan: a web and mobile app for systematic reviews. Syst Rev 2016; 5: 210.
Higgins JPT, Morgan RL, Rooney AA, et al. A tool to assess risk of bias in non-randomized studies of exposure effects (ROBINS-E). Environ Int 2024; 186: 108602.
Navasumrit P, Chanvaivit S, Intarasunanont P, et al. Environmental and occupational exposure to benzene in Thailand. Chem-Biol Interact 2005; 153-154: 75-83.
Kampeewipakorn O, Navasumrit P, Promvijit J, et al. Health impact assessment of exposure to benzene and 1,3-butadiene in people living nearby the industrial areas, Rayong province. Thai J Toxicol 2015; 30(2): 112-27.
Phatrabuddha N, Maharatchpong N, Keadtongtawee S, et al. Comparison of personal BTEX exposure and pregnancy outcomes among pregnant women residing in and near a petrochemical industrial area. Environ Asia 2013; 6(2): 34-41.
Jamebozorgi I, Majidizadeh T, Pouryagoub G, et al. Aberrant DNA methylation of p14ARF and p15INK4b after chronic occupational exposure to low-level benzene. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2018; 19(3): 145-51.
Punjindasup A, Sangrajrang S, Ekpanyaskull C, et al. Occupational risk factors of lymphohema-topoietic cancer in Rayong province, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai 2015; 98(Suppl 10): S13-22.
Danysh HE, Mitchell LE, Zhang K, et al. Traffic-related air pollution and incidence of childhood central nervous system tumors: Texas 2001–2009. Environ Res 2015; 143: 1572-8.
Stenehjem JS, Kjærheim K, Bråtveit M, et al. Benzene exposure and risk of lymphohaema-topoietic cancers in 25 000 offshore oil-industry workers. Br J Cancer 2015; 112: 1603-12.
Raaschou-Nielsen O, Hvidtfeldt UA, Roswall N, et al. Ambient benzene at the residence and risk for subtypes of childhood leukaemia, lymphoma and CNS tumour. Int J Cancer 2018; 143(6): 1367-73.
Heck JE, He D, Contreras ZA, et al. Parental occupational exposure to benzene and risk of childhood and adolescent acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: population-based study. Occup Environ Med 2019; 76(8): 527-9.
Sathiakumar N, Bolaji BE, Brill I, et al. 1,3-butadiene, styrene and lymphohaematopoietic cancers among North American synthetic-rubber workers: exposure-response analyses. Occup Environ Med 2021; 78(12): 859-68.
Valdez-Flores C, Erraguntla N, Budinsky R, et al. Updated lymphohematopoietic and bladder-cancer risk evaluation for occupational and environmental exposures to 1,3-butadiene. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 366: 110077.
Shala NK, Stenehjem JS, Babigumira R, et al. Exposure to benzene and other hydrocarbons and risk of bladder cancer among male offshore petroleum workers. Br J Cancer 2023; 129(5): 838-51.
Heck JE, He D, Wing SE, et al. Exposure to outdoor ambient air toxics and risk of breast cancer: the Multiethnic Cohort. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2024; 259: 114362.
Tsai SP, Ahmed FS, Ransdell JD, et al. A hematology surveillance study of petrochemical workers exposed to 1,3-butadiene. J Occup Environ Hyg 2005; 2(10): 508-15.
Lovreglio P, Bukvic N, Fustinoni S, et al. Lack of genotoxic effect in workers exposed to very low doses of 1,3-butadiene. Arch Toxicol 2006; 80(6): 378-81.
Chanvaivit S, Navasumrit P, Hunsonti P, et al. Exposure assessment of benzene in Thai workers, DNA-repair capacity and influence of genetic polymorphisms. Mutat Res 2007; 626(1-2): 79-87.
Pesatori AC, Garte S, Popov T, et al. Early effects of low benzene exposure on blood cell counts in Bulgarian petrochemical workers. Med Lav 2009; 100(2): 83-90.
Wickliffe JK, Ammenheuser MM, Adler PJ, et al. Evaluation of HPRT mutant lymphocytes in butadiene-polymer workers in Southeast Texas. Environ Mol Mutagen 2009; 50(2): 82-7.
Seow WJ, Pesatori AC, Dimont E, et al. Urinary benzene biomarkers and DNA methylation in Bulgarian petrochemical workers: comparison of linear and beta regression models. PLoS One 2012; 7(12): e50471.
Jamebozorgi I, Mahjoubi F, Pouryaghoub G, et al. Micronucleus, nucleoplasmic bridge and nuclear budding in peripheral blood cells of workers exposed to low-level benzene. Int J Occup Environ Med 2016; 7(4): 227-33.
Zhang GH, Ji BQ, Li Y, et al. Benchmark doses based on WBC abnormalities or micronucleus frequency in benzene-exposed Chinese workers. J Occup Environ Med 2016; 58(2): e39-44.
Li J, Xing X, Zhang X, et al. Enhanced H3K4me3 modifications involved in transacti-vation of DNA-damage responsive genes in workers exposed to low-level benzene. Environ Pollut 2018; 234: 127-35.
Zhang Z, Liu X, Guo C, et al. Hematological effects and benchmark doses of long-term co-exposure to benzene, toluene and xylenes in petrochemical workers. Toxics 2022; 10(9): 502.
Li S, Liao X, Ma R, et al. Effects of co-exposure to benzene, toluene and xylene, microRNA-gene polymorphisms, and their interactions on genetic damage in Chinese petrochemical workers. Toxics 2024; 12(11): 821.
Wang F, Ye L, Jiang X, et al. Specific CpG-site methylation associated with hematotoxicity in low-dose benzene-exposed workers. Environ Int 2024; 186: 108645.
Sadeghi-Yarandi M, Golbabaei F, Karimi A. Pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms among workers exposed to 1,3-butadiene in an Iranian petrochemical industry. Arch Environ Occup Health 2020; 75(8): 483-90.
Liao Q, Du R, Ma R, et al. Exposure to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and styrene (BTEXS) and small-airways function: a cross-sectional study. Environ Res 2022; 212: 113488.
Tanyanont W, Vichit-Vadakan N. Exposure to volatile organic compounds and health risks among residents near a petrochemical complex in Rayong, Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2012; 43(1): 201-11.
Edokpolo B, Yu QJ, Connell D. Health risk assessment for exposure to benzene in petroleum refinery environments. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2015; 12(1): 595-610.
Kampeerawipakorn O, Navasumrit P, Settachan D, et al. Health-risk evaluation in a population exposed to chemical releases from a petrochemical complex in Thailand. Environ Res 2017; 152: 207-13.
McDonald BC, de Gouw JA, Gilman JB, et al. Volatile chemical products emerging as largest petrochemical source of urban organic emissions. Science 2018; 359: 760-4.
Rajapakse MY, Borràs E, Fung AG, et al. An environmental air sampler to evaluate personal exposure to volatile organic compounds. Analyst 2021; 146(2): 636-45.
Menezes HC, Amorim LC, Cardeal ZL. Sampling and analytical methods for determining VOCs in air by biomonitoring human exposure. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2013; 43(1): 1-39.
Stock TH, Morandi MT, Afshar M, et al. Use of diffusive air samplers to determine temporal and spatial variation of VOCs in urban ambient air. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2008; 58(10): 1303-10.
Steinsvåg K, Bråtveit M, Moen BE. Exposure to carcinogens for defined job categories in Norway’s offshore petroleum industry, 1970–2005. Occup Environ Med 2007; 64(4): 250-8.
Steinsvåg K, Bråtveit M, Moen BE, et al. Expert assessment of exposure to carcinogens in Norway’s offshore petroleum industry. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2008; 18(2): 175-82.
Kauppinen T, Heikkilä P, Plato N, et al. Construction of job-exposure matrices for the Nordic Occupational Cancer Study (NOCCA). Acta Oncol 2009; 48(5): 791-800.
Spycher BD, Lupatsch JE, Huss A, et al. Parental occupational exposure to benzene and risk of childhood cancer: a census-based cohort study. Environ Int 2017; 108: 84-91.
Kauppinen TP, Mutanen PO, Seitsamo JT. Magnitude of misclassification bias when using a job-exposure matrix. Scand J Work Environ Health 1992; 18: 105-12.
Karipidis KK, Benke G, Sim MR, et al. Occupational exposure to ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2007; 80: 663-70.
Seidler A, Geller P, Nienhaus A, et al. Occupational exposure to low-frequency magnetic fields and dementia: a case–control study. Occup Environ Med 2007; 64(2): 108-14.
Tsai SP, Fox EE, Ransdell JD, et al. Hematology surveillance study of petrochemical workers exposed to benzene. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2004; 40(1): 67-73.
Han W, Wang S, Jiang L, et al. Diallyl trisulfide suppresses benzene-induced cytopenia by modulating haematopoietic-cell apoptosis. Environ Pollut 2017; 231: 301-10.
Liang B, Zhong Y, Chen K, et al. Serum plasminogen as a potential biomarker for low-dose benzene exposure. Toxicology 2018; 410: 59-64.
Bollati V, Baccarelli A, Hou L, et al. Changes in DNA methylation patterns in subjects exposed to low-dose benzene. Cancer Res 2007; 67(3): 876-80.
Guo X, Zhang L, Wang J, et al. Plasma metabolomics identifies metabolic signatures of benzene-induced hematotoxicity. JCI Insight 2022; 7(2): e154999.
Wang B, Xu S, Wang T, et al. LincRNA-p21 promotes p21-mediated cell-cycle arrest in benzene hematotoxicity. Environ Pollut 2022; 296: 118706.
Wang TS, Tian W, Fang Y, et al. miR-222, DNA-repair capacity and MDM2-p53 axis in low-dose benzene genotoxicity. Sci Total Environ 2021; 765: 142740.
Wang B, Xu S, Sun Q, et al. Let-7e-5p, a promising novel biomarker for benzene toxicity, is involved in benzene-induced hematopoietic toxicity through targeting caspase-3 and p21. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2022; 246: 114142.
Swenberg JA, Fryar-Tita E, Jeong YC, et al. Biomarkers in toxicology and risk assessment: informing critical dose–response relationships. Chem Res Toxicol 2008; 21(1): 253-65.
Zhang Z, Yan X, Gao F, et al. Emission and health-risk assessment of VOCs in processes of a petroleum refinery in the Pearl River Delta. Environ Pollut 2018; 238: 452-61.
Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Hvidberg M, et al. Air pollution from traffic and cancer incidence: a Danish cohort study. Environ Health 2011; 10: 67.
Boothe VL, Boehmer TK, Wendel AM, et al. Residential traffic exposure and childhood leukaemia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med 2014; 46(4): 413-22.
Wilson D, Takahashi K, Pan G, et al. Respiratory symptoms among residents of a heavy-industry province in China: prevalence and risk factors. Respir Med 2008; 102(11): 1536-44.
Asa P, Jinsart W. Air-pollution-related respiratory symptoms in schoolchildren in industrial areas of Rayong, Thailand. Environ Asia 2016; 9(1): 116-23.
Frisk MLA, Stridh G, Ivarsson AB, et al. Can a housing environmental index link indoor risk indicators and clinical tests in asthma? Int J Environ Health Res 2009; 19(6): 389-404.
Wieslander G, Norbäck D, Björnsson E, et al. Asthma and indoor emissions of formaldehyde and VOCs from newly painted surfaces. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1997; 69(2): 115-24.
Cakmak S, Dales RE, Liu L, et al. Residential exposure to volatile organic compounds and lung function: results from a population-based cross-sectional survey. Environ Pollut 2014; 194: 145-51.
Jakeways N, McKeever T, Lewis SA, et al. Relationship between FEV1 reduction and respiratory symptoms in the general population. Eur Respir J 2003; 21(4): 658-63.
Arayasiri M, Mahidol C, Navasumrit P, et al. Biomonitoring of benzene and 1,3-butadiene exposure and early biological effects in traffic policemen. Sci Total Environ 2010; 408(20): 4855-62.
