Use of Zero-Valent Iron for Wastewater Treatment
Article Sidebar
Published:
Mar 30, 2018
Keywords:
Wastewater treatment, Zero-valent iron
Main Article Content
Abstract
Nowadays many water resources are polluted by anthropogenic sources including household and agricultural waste and industrial processes. Public concern over the environment impact of wastewater pollution has increased. Several conventional wastewater treatment techniques, i.e. chemical coagulation, adsorption, activated sludge, have been applied to remove the pollution, however there are still some limitations, especially that of high operation costs. The use of zero-valent iron as a reductive medium is receiving increased interest due to its low operation and maintenance costs. In addition, it is easy-to-obtain, with good effectiveness and ability for degrading contaminants. This paper reviews the use of zero-valent iron to remove contaminants from wastewater such as halogenated hydrocarbon compounds, heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, and herbicides, which represent the main pollutions in wastewater.
Keywords: Wastewater treatment, Zero-valent iron
Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]
Article Details
Issue
Section
Review Ariticle
Copyright Transfer Statement
The copyright of this article is transferred to Current Applied Science and Technology journal with effect if and when the article is accepted for publication. The copyright transfer covers the exclusive right to reproduce and distribute the article, including reprints, translations, photographic reproductions, electronic form (offline, online) or any other reproductions of similar nature.
The author warrants that this contribution is original and that he/she has full power to make this grant. The author signs for and accepts responsibility for releasing this material on behalf of any and all co-authors.
Here is the link for download: Copyright transfer form.pdf
References
[1] National Research Council. 1994 Alternatives for Ground Water Cleanup, Committee on Ground Water Cleanup Alternatives. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
[2] Palaharn, W. and Junyapoon, S. 2004 Discoloration of Reactive Blue 5 in Aqueous Solutions by Waste Iron Particles, 1st KMITL International Conference on Integration of Science and Technology for Sustainable Development, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-26 August 2004, Vol.1, pp. 217-220.
[3] Lee T., Lim H., Lee Y. and Park J-W. 2003 Use of Waste Iron Metal for Removal of Cr(VI) from Water, Chemosphere, 53, 479-485.
[4] Puls, R.W., C.J. and Powell, R.M. 1999 The Application of in situ Permeable Reactive (Zero-valent Iron) Barrier Technology for the Remediation of Chromate Contaminated Groundwater: A Field Test, Applied Geochemistry, 14, 989-1000.
[5] Sivavec, T.J. and Horney, D.P. 1995 Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Ethenes by Iron Metal. Proceedings of the 209th ACS National Meeting, Anaheim, California, April 2-7, 1995.
[6] Burris D.R., Campbell T.J. and Manoranjan V.S. 1995 Sorption of Trichloroethylene and Tetrachloethylene in a Batch Reactive Metallic Iron-water System, Environmental Science and Technology, 29, 2850-2855.
[7] Gillham, R.W. and O’ Hannesin, S.F. 1994 Enhance Degradation of Halogenated Aliphatics by Zero-valent Iron, Ground Water, 32, 958-967.
[8] Matheson, L.J. and Tratnyek, P.G. 1994 Reductive Dehalogenation of Chlorinated Methanes by Iron Metal, Environmental Science and Technology, 28, 2045-2053.
[9] Schreirer, C.G. and Reinhard, M. 1994 Transformation of Chlorinated Organic Compounds by Iron and Manganese Powders in Buffered Water and in Landfill Leachate, Chemosphere, 29, 1743-1753.
[10] Orth W.S. and Gillham R.W. 1996 Dechlorination of Trichloroethene in Aqueous Solutions Using Fe0, Environmental Science and Technology, 30(1), 66-71.
[11] Roberts, A.L., Totten, L.A., Arnold, W.A., Burris, D.R. and Campbell, T.J. 1996 Reductive Elimination of Chlorinated Ethylenes by Zero-valent Metals, Environmental Science and Technology, 30, 2654-2659.
[12] Johnson, T.L., Scherer, M.M. and Tratnyek, P.G. 1996 Kinetics of Halogenated Organic Compound Degradation by Iron Metal, Environmental Science and Technology, 30, 2634-2640.
[13] Gotpagar J., Grulke E., Tsang T. and Bhattacharyya, D. 1997 Reductive Dehalogenation of Trichloroethylene using Zero-valent Iron, Environmental Progress, 16(2), 137-143.
[14] Allen-King, R.M., Halket, R.M. and Burris, D.R. 1997 Reductive Transformation and Sorption of cis- and trans-1,2-dichloroethene in a Metallic Iron-Water System, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16, 424-429.
[15] Campbell, T.J. Burris, D.R., Roberts, A.L. and Well, J.R. 1997 Trichloroethylene and Tetrachloroethylene Reduction in a Metallic Iron-Water-Vapor Batch System, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16, 625-630.
[16] Su, C.W. and Puls, R.W. 1999 Kinetics of Trichloroethene Reduction by Zero-valent Iron and Tin: Pre-treatment Effect, Apparent Activation Energy, and Intermediate Products, Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 163-168.
[17] Johnson, T.L., Fish, W., Gorby, Y.A. and Tratnyek, P.G. 1998 Degradation of Carbon Tetrachloride by Iron Metal: Complexation Effects on the Oxide Surface, Journal of Contaminated Hydrology, 29, 379-398.
[18] Wüst, W.F., Köber, R., Schlicker, O. and Dahmke, A. 1999 Combined Zero and First-Order Kinetic model of the Degradation of Trichloroethene and cis-dichloroethene with Commercial Iron, Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 4304-4309.
[19] Deng, B., Burris, D.R. and Campbell, T.J. 1999 Reduction of Vinyl chloride in Metallic Iron-Water System, Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 2651-2656.
[20] Farrell, J., Kason, M., Melitas, N.and Li, T. 2000 Investigation of the Long-term performance of Zero-valent Iron for Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene, Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 514-521.
[21] Janda, V., Vasek, P., Bizova, J. and Belohlav, Z. 2004 Kinetic Models for Volatile Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Removal by Zero-valent Iron, Chemosphere, 54, 917-925.
[22] Ghauch, A., Gallet, C., Charef, A., Rima, J. and Martin-Bouyer, M. 2001 Reductive Degradation of Carbaryl in Water by Zero-valent Iron, Chemosphere, 42, 419-424.
[23] Wang, C.B. and Zhang, W.X. 1997 Synthesizing Nanoscale Iron Particles for Rapid and Complete Dechlorination of TEC and PCBs, Environmental Science and Technology, 31, 2154-2156.
[24] Cheng, S.F. and Wu, S.C. 2000 The Enhancement Methods for the Degradation of TCE by Zero-valent Metals, Chemosphere, 41, 1263-1270.
[25] Doong, R.A., Chen, K.T. and Tasi, H.C. 2003 Reductive Dechlorination of Carbon Tetrachloride and Tetrachloroethylene by Zero-valent Silicon-Iron Reductants, Environmental Science and Technology, 37, 2575-2581.
[26] Hung, H.M. and Hoffmann, M.R. 1998 Kinetics and Mechanism of the Enhanced Reductive Degradation of CCl4 by Elemental Iron in the Presence of Ul
[27] Grittini, C., Malcomson, M., Fernando, Q. and Korte, N. 1995 Rapid Dechlorination of Polychlorinated biphenyls on the Surface of a Pd/Fe Bimetallic System, Environmental Science and Technology, 29, 2898-2900.
[28] Zhang, W.X., Wang, C.B. and Lien, H.L. 1998 Treatment of Chlorinated Organic Contaminants with Nanoscale Bimetallic Particles, Catalyst Today, 40, 387-395.
[29] Fennelly, J.P. and Roberts, A.L. 1998 Reaction of 1,1,1-Trichloroethene with Zero-valent Metals and Bimetallic Reductants, Environmental Science and Technology, 32, 1980-1988.
[30] Lui, Y., Yang, F., Yue, P.L. and Chen, G. 2001 Catalytic Dechlorination of Chlorophenols in Water by Palladium/ Iron, Water Research, 35, 1887-1890.
[31] Morales, J., Hutcheson, R. and Cheng, I.F. 2002 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Phenols by Catalyzed and Uncatalyzed Fe(0) and Mg(0) Particles, Journal of Hazardous Materials, B90, 97-108.
[32] Schrick, B., Blough, J.L., Jones, A.D. and Mallouk, T.E. 2002 Hydrodechlorination of Trichloroethylene to Hydrocarbons using Bimetallic Nickel-Iron Nanoparticles, Chemical Materials, 14, 5140-5147.
[33] Lin, C.J., Lo, S.L. and Liou, Y.H. 2004 Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene in Aqueous Solution by Noble Metal-Modified Iron, Journal of Hazardous Materials, B116, 219-228.
[34] Blowes, D.W., Ptacek, C.J. and Jambor, J.L. 1997 In-situ Remediation of Cr(VI) Contaminated Groundwater using Permeable Reactive Walls: Laboratory Studies, Environmental Science and Technology, 31(12), 3348-3357.
[35] Buerge, I.J. and Hug, S.J. 1997 Kinetics and pH Dependence of Chromium (VI) Reduction by Iron (II), Environmental Science and Technology, 31(5), 1426-1432.
[36] Buerge, I.J. and Hug, S.J. 1999 Influence o Mineral Surfaces on Chromium (VI) Reduction by Iron (II), Environmental Science and Technology, 33(23), 4285-4291.
[37] Lackovic, J.A., Nikolaidis, N.P. and Dobbs, G.M. 2000 Inorganic Arsenic Removal by Zero-valent Iron, Environmental Engineer and Science, 17(1), 29-39.
[38] Su, C. and Puls, R.W. 2001 Arsenate and Arsenite Removal by Zero-valent Iron: Kinetics, Redox, Transformation, and Implications for in situ Groundwater Remediation, Environmental Science and Technology, 35(7), 1478-1492.
[39] Farrell, J., Wang, J., O’Day, P. and Conklin, M. 2001 Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Study of Arsenate Removal from Water using Zero-valent Iron Media, Environmental Science and Technology, 35(10), 2026-2032.
[40] Nikolaidis N.P., Dobbs G.M. and Lackovic J.A. 2003 Arsenic Removal by Zero-valent Iron: Field, Laboratory and Modeling Studies, Water Research, 37, 1417-1425.
[41] Daus, B., Wennrich, R. and Weiss, H. 2004 Sorption Materials for Arsenic Removal from Water: A Comparative Study, Water Research, 38, 2948-2954.
[42] Weber E.J 1996 Iron-mediated reductive transformations: investigation of reaction mechanism, Environmental Science and Technology, 30(2), 716-719.
[43] Cao, J., Wei, L., Huang, Q., Wang, L. and Han, S. 1999 Reducing Degradation of Azo Dye by Zero-valent Iron in Aqueous Solution, Chemosphere, 38(3), 565-571.
[44] Deng N., Luo F., Wu F., Xiao M. and Wu X. 2000 Discoloration of Aqueous Reactive Dye Solutions in the UV/Fe0 System, Water Research, 34(8), 2408-2411.
[45] Nam S. and Tratnyek P.G. 2000 Reduction of Azo Dyes with Zero-valent Iron, Water Research, 34(6), 1837-1845.
[46] Pielesz, A., Baranowska, I., Rybak, A. and Wlochowicz, A. 2002 Detection and Determination of Aromatic Amines as Products of Reductive Splitting from Selected Azo Dyes, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 53, 42-47.
[47] Zhang, S.J., Yu, H.Q. and Li, Q.R. 2005 Radiolytic Degradation of Acid Orange 7: A Mechanistic Study, Chemosphere, 61, 1003-1011.
[48] Singh, J., Shea, P.J. Hundal, L.S. Comfort, S.D., Zhang, T.C. and Hage, D.S. 1998 Iron-enhanced Remediation of Water and Soil Contaminating Atrazine, Weed science, 46, 381-388.
[49] Comfort, S.D., Shea, P.J., Machacek, T.A., Gaber, H. and Oh, B.T. 2001 Field-scale Remediation of a Metolachlor-contaminated Spill Site using Zerovalent Iron, Journal of Environmental Quality, 30, 1636-1643.
[50] Gaber, H.M, Comfort, S.D., Shea, P.J. and Machacek, T.A. 2002 Metolachlor dichlorination by Zerovalent Iron during Unsaturated Transport, Journal of Environmental Quality, 31, 962-969.
[51] Satapanajaru, T., Comfort, S.D. and Shea, P.J. 2003 Enhancing Metolachlor Destruction Rates with Aluminium and Iron Salts during Zerovalent Iron Treatment, Journal of Environmental Quality, 32, 1726-1734.
[52] Shea, P.J., Machacek, T.A. and Comfort, S.D. 2004 Accelerated Remediation of Pesticide-contaminated Soil with Zerovalent Iron, Environmental Pollution, 132, 183-188.
[53] Gibb, C., Satapanajaru, T., Comfort, S.D. and Shea, P.J. 2004 Remediating Dicamba-contaminated Water with Zerovalent Iron, Chemosphere, 54, 841-848.
[54] Shoemaker, S.H. et al. 1994 Permeable Reactive Barriers. In: Rumer, R.R. and Mitchell, J. Eds. Assessment of Barrier Containment Technologies: A Comprehensive Treatment for Environmental; Remediation Applications. Chap. 11, U.S. Department of Energy, pp. 301-353.
[55] Xu, Y. and Schwartz, F.W. 1992 Immobilization of Lead in Groundwater with a Reactive Barrier System. 3rd International Conference on Groundwater Quality Research, Dallas, June 21-24, 1992.
[2] Palaharn, W. and Junyapoon, S. 2004 Discoloration of Reactive Blue 5 in Aqueous Solutions by Waste Iron Particles, 1st KMITL International Conference on Integration of Science and Technology for Sustainable Development, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-26 August 2004, Vol.1, pp. 217-220.
[3] Lee T., Lim H., Lee Y. and Park J-W. 2003 Use of Waste Iron Metal for Removal of Cr(VI) from Water, Chemosphere, 53, 479-485.
[4] Puls, R.W., C.J. and Powell, R.M. 1999 The Application of in situ Permeable Reactive (Zero-valent Iron) Barrier Technology for the Remediation of Chromate Contaminated Groundwater: A Field Test, Applied Geochemistry, 14, 989-1000.
[5] Sivavec, T.J. and Horney, D.P. 1995 Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Ethenes by Iron Metal. Proceedings of the 209th ACS National Meeting, Anaheim, California, April 2-7, 1995.
[6] Burris D.R., Campbell T.J. and Manoranjan V.S. 1995 Sorption of Trichloroethylene and Tetrachloethylene in a Batch Reactive Metallic Iron-water System, Environmental Science and Technology, 29, 2850-2855.
[7] Gillham, R.W. and O’ Hannesin, S.F. 1994 Enhance Degradation of Halogenated Aliphatics by Zero-valent Iron, Ground Water, 32, 958-967.
[8] Matheson, L.J. and Tratnyek, P.G. 1994 Reductive Dehalogenation of Chlorinated Methanes by Iron Metal, Environmental Science and Technology, 28, 2045-2053.
[9] Schreirer, C.G. and Reinhard, M. 1994 Transformation of Chlorinated Organic Compounds by Iron and Manganese Powders in Buffered Water and in Landfill Leachate, Chemosphere, 29, 1743-1753.
[10] Orth W.S. and Gillham R.W. 1996 Dechlorination of Trichloroethene in Aqueous Solutions Using Fe0, Environmental Science and Technology, 30(1), 66-71.
[11] Roberts, A.L., Totten, L.A., Arnold, W.A., Burris, D.R. and Campbell, T.J. 1996 Reductive Elimination of Chlorinated Ethylenes by Zero-valent Metals, Environmental Science and Technology, 30, 2654-2659.
[12] Johnson, T.L., Scherer, M.M. and Tratnyek, P.G. 1996 Kinetics of Halogenated Organic Compound Degradation by Iron Metal, Environmental Science and Technology, 30, 2634-2640.
[13] Gotpagar J., Grulke E., Tsang T. and Bhattacharyya, D. 1997 Reductive Dehalogenation of Trichloroethylene using Zero-valent Iron, Environmental Progress, 16(2), 137-143.
[14] Allen-King, R.M., Halket, R.M. and Burris, D.R. 1997 Reductive Transformation and Sorption of cis- and trans-1,2-dichloroethene in a Metallic Iron-Water System, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16, 424-429.
[15] Campbell, T.J. Burris, D.R., Roberts, A.L. and Well, J.R. 1997 Trichloroethylene and Tetrachloroethylene Reduction in a Metallic Iron-Water-Vapor Batch System, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16, 625-630.
[16] Su, C.W. and Puls, R.W. 1999 Kinetics of Trichloroethene Reduction by Zero-valent Iron and Tin: Pre-treatment Effect, Apparent Activation Energy, and Intermediate Products, Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 163-168.
[17] Johnson, T.L., Fish, W., Gorby, Y.A. and Tratnyek, P.G. 1998 Degradation of Carbon Tetrachloride by Iron Metal: Complexation Effects on the Oxide Surface, Journal of Contaminated Hydrology, 29, 379-398.
[18] Wüst, W.F., Köber, R., Schlicker, O. and Dahmke, A. 1999 Combined Zero and First-Order Kinetic model of the Degradation of Trichloroethene and cis-dichloroethene with Commercial Iron, Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 4304-4309.
[19] Deng, B., Burris, D.R. and Campbell, T.J. 1999 Reduction of Vinyl chloride in Metallic Iron-Water System, Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 2651-2656.
[20] Farrell, J., Kason, M., Melitas, N.and Li, T. 2000 Investigation of the Long-term performance of Zero-valent Iron for Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene, Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 514-521.
[21] Janda, V., Vasek, P., Bizova, J. and Belohlav, Z. 2004 Kinetic Models for Volatile Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Removal by Zero-valent Iron, Chemosphere, 54, 917-925.
[22] Ghauch, A., Gallet, C., Charef, A., Rima, J. and Martin-Bouyer, M. 2001 Reductive Degradation of Carbaryl in Water by Zero-valent Iron, Chemosphere, 42, 419-424.
[23] Wang, C.B. and Zhang, W.X. 1997 Synthesizing Nanoscale Iron Particles for Rapid and Complete Dechlorination of TEC and PCBs, Environmental Science and Technology, 31, 2154-2156.
[24] Cheng, S.F. and Wu, S.C. 2000 The Enhancement Methods for the Degradation of TCE by Zero-valent Metals, Chemosphere, 41, 1263-1270.
[25] Doong, R.A., Chen, K.T. and Tasi, H.C. 2003 Reductive Dechlorination of Carbon Tetrachloride and Tetrachloroethylene by Zero-valent Silicon-Iron Reductants, Environmental Science and Technology, 37, 2575-2581.
[26] Hung, H.M. and Hoffmann, M.R. 1998 Kinetics and Mechanism of the Enhanced Reductive Degradation of CCl4 by Elemental Iron in the Presence of Ul
[27] Grittini, C., Malcomson, M., Fernando, Q. and Korte, N. 1995 Rapid Dechlorination of Polychlorinated biphenyls on the Surface of a Pd/Fe Bimetallic System, Environmental Science and Technology, 29, 2898-2900.
[28] Zhang, W.X., Wang, C.B. and Lien, H.L. 1998 Treatment of Chlorinated Organic Contaminants with Nanoscale Bimetallic Particles, Catalyst Today, 40, 387-395.
[29] Fennelly, J.P. and Roberts, A.L. 1998 Reaction of 1,1,1-Trichloroethene with Zero-valent Metals and Bimetallic Reductants, Environmental Science and Technology, 32, 1980-1988.
[30] Lui, Y., Yang, F., Yue, P.L. and Chen, G. 2001 Catalytic Dechlorination of Chlorophenols in Water by Palladium/ Iron, Water Research, 35, 1887-1890.
[31] Morales, J., Hutcheson, R. and Cheng, I.F. 2002 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Phenols by Catalyzed and Uncatalyzed Fe(0) and Mg(0) Particles, Journal of Hazardous Materials, B90, 97-108.
[32] Schrick, B., Blough, J.L., Jones, A.D. and Mallouk, T.E. 2002 Hydrodechlorination of Trichloroethylene to Hydrocarbons using Bimetallic Nickel-Iron Nanoparticles, Chemical Materials, 14, 5140-5147.
[33] Lin, C.J., Lo, S.L. and Liou, Y.H. 2004 Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene in Aqueous Solution by Noble Metal-Modified Iron, Journal of Hazardous Materials, B116, 219-228.
[34] Blowes, D.W., Ptacek, C.J. and Jambor, J.L. 1997 In-situ Remediation of Cr(VI) Contaminated Groundwater using Permeable Reactive Walls: Laboratory Studies, Environmental Science and Technology, 31(12), 3348-3357.
[35] Buerge, I.J. and Hug, S.J. 1997 Kinetics and pH Dependence of Chromium (VI) Reduction by Iron (II), Environmental Science and Technology, 31(5), 1426-1432.
[36] Buerge, I.J. and Hug, S.J. 1999 Influence o Mineral Surfaces on Chromium (VI) Reduction by Iron (II), Environmental Science and Technology, 33(23), 4285-4291.
[37] Lackovic, J.A., Nikolaidis, N.P. and Dobbs, G.M. 2000 Inorganic Arsenic Removal by Zero-valent Iron, Environmental Engineer and Science, 17(1), 29-39.
[38] Su, C. and Puls, R.W. 2001 Arsenate and Arsenite Removal by Zero-valent Iron: Kinetics, Redox, Transformation, and Implications for in situ Groundwater Remediation, Environmental Science and Technology, 35(7), 1478-1492.
[39] Farrell, J., Wang, J., O’Day, P. and Conklin, M. 2001 Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Study of Arsenate Removal from Water using Zero-valent Iron Media, Environmental Science and Technology, 35(10), 2026-2032.
[40] Nikolaidis N.P., Dobbs G.M. and Lackovic J.A. 2003 Arsenic Removal by Zero-valent Iron: Field, Laboratory and Modeling Studies, Water Research, 37, 1417-1425.
[41] Daus, B., Wennrich, R. and Weiss, H. 2004 Sorption Materials for Arsenic Removal from Water: A Comparative Study, Water Research, 38, 2948-2954.
[42] Weber E.J 1996 Iron-mediated reductive transformations: investigation of reaction mechanism, Environmental Science and Technology, 30(2), 716-719.
[43] Cao, J., Wei, L., Huang, Q., Wang, L. and Han, S. 1999 Reducing Degradation of Azo Dye by Zero-valent Iron in Aqueous Solution, Chemosphere, 38(3), 565-571.
[44] Deng N., Luo F., Wu F., Xiao M. and Wu X. 2000 Discoloration of Aqueous Reactive Dye Solutions in the UV/Fe0 System, Water Research, 34(8), 2408-2411.
[45] Nam S. and Tratnyek P.G. 2000 Reduction of Azo Dyes with Zero-valent Iron, Water Research, 34(6), 1837-1845.
[46] Pielesz, A., Baranowska, I., Rybak, A. and Wlochowicz, A. 2002 Detection and Determination of Aromatic Amines as Products of Reductive Splitting from Selected Azo Dyes, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 53, 42-47.
[47] Zhang, S.J., Yu, H.Q. and Li, Q.R. 2005 Radiolytic Degradation of Acid Orange 7: A Mechanistic Study, Chemosphere, 61, 1003-1011.
[48] Singh, J., Shea, P.J. Hundal, L.S. Comfort, S.D., Zhang, T.C. and Hage, D.S. 1998 Iron-enhanced Remediation of Water and Soil Contaminating Atrazine, Weed science, 46, 381-388.
[49] Comfort, S.D., Shea, P.J., Machacek, T.A., Gaber, H. and Oh, B.T. 2001 Field-scale Remediation of a Metolachlor-contaminated Spill Site using Zerovalent Iron, Journal of Environmental Quality, 30, 1636-1643.
[50] Gaber, H.M, Comfort, S.D., Shea, P.J. and Machacek, T.A. 2002 Metolachlor dichlorination by Zerovalent Iron during Unsaturated Transport, Journal of Environmental Quality, 31, 962-969.
[51] Satapanajaru, T., Comfort, S.D. and Shea, P.J. 2003 Enhancing Metolachlor Destruction Rates with Aluminium and Iron Salts during Zerovalent Iron Treatment, Journal of Environmental Quality, 32, 1726-1734.
[52] Shea, P.J., Machacek, T.A. and Comfort, S.D. 2004 Accelerated Remediation of Pesticide-contaminated Soil with Zerovalent Iron, Environmental Pollution, 132, 183-188.
[53] Gibb, C., Satapanajaru, T., Comfort, S.D. and Shea, P.J. 2004 Remediating Dicamba-contaminated Water with Zerovalent Iron, Chemosphere, 54, 841-848.
[54] Shoemaker, S.H. et al. 1994 Permeable Reactive Barriers. In: Rumer, R.R. and Mitchell, J. Eds. Assessment of Barrier Containment Technologies: A Comprehensive Treatment for Environmental; Remediation Applications. Chap. 11, U.S. Department of Energy, pp. 301-353.
[55] Xu, Y. and Schwartz, F.W. 1992 Immobilization of Lead in Groundwater with a Reactive Barrier System. 3rd International Conference on Groundwater Quality Research, Dallas, June 21-24, 1992.