Size Distributions of Inhalable Particulate Matter and Particle-bound Heavy Metals and Their Potential Occupational Health Risk Related to Informal E-waste Recycling in Thailand
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Concentrations and size distributions of atmospheric particulates and particulate-bound heavy metals in different inhalable fractions were studied in working areas during manual dismantling, thermal cutting and cable sheath burning activities. The particulate samples were collected on quartz fiber filters using an eight-stage cascade impactor with flow rate of 28.3 l min-1. Mass concentrations of the particles were measured in each size fraction. Heavy metals bound on the particles were extracted with acid digestion and then analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Risk assessment of worker exposure to the particles was determined. The results indicated that the concentrations of ultrafine (dae < 0.43 μm), fine (0.43 < dae < 2.1 μm) and coarse (2.1 < dae < 10 μm) particles were in the ranges of 14.49-62.04, 57.51-120.26 and 153.26–646.99 μg m−3 during manual dismantling, 363.41-1,011.95, 2,105.40-4,899.11 and 1,698.54-7,075.61 μg m−3 during thermal cutting and 364.73-1,694.72, 1,953.33-4,431.41 and 1,385.97-6,126.13 μg m−3 during cable sheath burning, respectively. The concentrations of PM2.1 and PM10 released from these activities did not exceed the OSHA PEL threshold limits. Heavy metals adsorbed on the particles (Fe, Cr, Zn, Cu, Pb, Mn) detected during manual dismantling did not exceed the TWA standard. Concentrations of Cr and Pb during cable sheath burning highly exceeded the standards whereas Pb concentrations during thermal cutting slightly exceeded the standard. The heavy metals released from these recycling activities were more enriched on coarse mode than fine mode. Inhalation exposure to Cr, Pb and Mn posed a potential health risk to the workers.
Keywords: manual dismantling; thermal cutting; cable sheath burning; inhalable particles; heavy metals; risk assessment; size distributions
*Corresponding author: Tel.: (+66) 2329840011 ext. 290 Fax: (+66) 23298428
E-mail: [email protected]
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright Transfer Statement
The copyright of this article is transferred to Current Applied Science and Technology journal with effect if and when the article is accepted for publication. The copyright transfer covers the exclusive right to reproduce and distribute the article, including reprints, translations, photographic reproductions, electronic form (offline, online) or any other reproductions of similar nature.
The author warrants that this contribution is original and that he/she has full power to make this grant. The author signs for and accepts responsibility for releasing this material on behalf of any and all co-authors.
Here is the link for download: Copyright transfer form.pdf
References
Forti, V., Balde, C.P., Kuehr, R. and Bel, G., 2020. The Global E-waste Monitor 2020: Quantities, Flows and the Circular Economy Potential. Bonn/Geneva/Rotterdam: International Telecommunication Union and International Solid Waste Association.
Kaya, M., 2016. Recovery of metals and nonmetals from electronic waste by physical and chemical recycling processes. Waste Management, 57, 64-90.
Wang, F., Zhao, Y., Zhang, T., Zhang, G., Yang, X., He, Y., Wang, L. and Duan, C., 2017. Metals recovery from dust derived from recycling line of waste printed circuit boards. Journal of Cleaner Production, 165, 452-457.
Song, Q. and Li, J., 2014. Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: A systematic review. Waste Management, 34(12), 2587-2594.
Perkins, D.N., Drisse, M.N.B., Nxele, T. and Sly, P.D., 2014. E-waste: A global hazard. Annals of Global Health, 80, 286-295.
Sasaki, S., 2021. The effects on Thailand of China’s import restrictions on waste: measures and challenges related to the international recycling of waste plastic and e waste. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 23, 77-83.
PCD (Pollution Control Department), 2020. Thailand State of Pollution Report 2019. [online] Available at: http://pcd.go.th/file/Thailand_Pollution_%20Report_2019_Thai.pdf.
Ruan, J., Hu, J., Xu, Z. and Zhang, J., 2016. Exposure risks of noise and heavy metals in dismantling lines for recovering waste televisions. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112(5), 4469-4476.
Oguri, T., Suzuki, G., Matsukami, H., Uchida, N., Tue, N.M., Tuyen, L.H., Viet, P.H., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. and Takigami, H., 2018. Exposure assessment of heavy metals in an e-waste processing area in northern Vietnam. Science of the Total Environment, 621, 1115-1123.
Huang, C-L., Bao, L-J., Luo, P., Wang, Z-Y., Li, S-M. and Zeng, E.Y., 2016. Potential health risk for residents around a typical e-waste recycling zone via inhalation of size-fractionated particle-bound heavy metals. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 317, 449-456.
Zeng, X., Xu, X., Zheng, X., Reponen, T., Chen, A. and Huo, X., 2016. Heavy metals in PM2.5 and in blood, and children’s respiratory symptoms and asthma from an e-waste recycling area. Environmental Pollution, 210, 346-353.
Deng, W.J., Louie, P.K.K., Liu, W.K., Bi, X.H., Fu, J.M. and Wong, M.H., 2006. Atmospheric levels and cytotoxicity of PAHs and heavy metals in TSP and PM2.5 at an electronic waste recycling site in southeast China. Atmospheric Environment, 40, 6945-6955.
Tang, X., Shen, C., Shi, D., Cheema, S.A., Khan, M.I., Zhang, C. and Chen, Y., 2010. Heavy metal and persistent organic compound contamination in soil from Wenling: An emerging e-waste recycling city in Taizhou area, China. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 173, 653-660.
Papaoikonomou, K., Emmanouil, C., Vasilatou, V., Diapouli, E., Grigoratos, T., Zafirakou, A. and Kungolos, A., 2018. PM10 and elemental concentrations in a dismantling plant for waste of electrical and electronic equipment in Greece. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 18, 1457-1469.
Chae, N., Lee, M-H., Choi, S., Park, B.G. and Song, J-S., 2019. Aerodynamic diameter and radioactivity distributions of radioactive aerosols from activated metals cutting for nuclear power plant decommissioning. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 369, 727-745.
Lee, M-H., Yang, W., Chae, N. and Choi, S., 2020. Aerodynamic diameter distribution of aerosols from plasma arc cutting for steels at different cutting power levels. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 323, 613-624.
Keawhanu, T., Suriyawong, A. and Junyapoon, S., 2019. Size distributions of particulate matter and particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their risk assessments during cable sheath burning. Current Applied Science and Technology, 19(2), 140-153.
Kiah, M.H., Mustafa, B.G., Andrews, G.E., Phylaktou, H.N. and Li, H., 2019. PVC Sheathed Electrical Cable Fire Smoke Toxicity. Proceedings of the Ninth International Seminar on Fire and Explosion Hazards. Vol. 2., St Petersburg, Russia, April 21-26, 2019, pp. 1176-1186.
Perović, D., Hees, P.V., Madsen, D., Malmborg, V., Gren, L., Pagels, J., Rios, O. and Mendola, S.L., 2020. Identification and characterization of design fires and particle emissions to be used in performance‐based fire design of nuclear facilities. Fire and Materials, 45(8), 1008-1024.
He, C-T., Zheng, X-B., Yan, X., Zheng, J., Wang, M-H., Tan, X., Qiao, L., Chen, S-J., Yang, Z-Y. and Mai, B-X., 2017. Organic contaminants and heavy metals in indoor dust from e-waste recycling, rural, and urban areas in South China: Spatial characteristics and implications for human exposure. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 140, 109-115.
Feldt, T., Fobil, J.N., Wittsiepe, J., Wilhelm, M., Till, H., Zoufaly, A., Burchard, G. and Göen, T., 2014. High levels of PAH-metabolites in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Ghana. Science of the Total Environment, 466-467, 369-376.
Luo, P., Bao, L-J., Li, S-M. and Zeng, E.Y., 2015. Size-dependent distribution and inhalation cancer risk of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a typical e-waste recycling and an urban site. Environmental Pollution, 200, 10-15.
Damrongsiri, S., Vassanadumrongdee, S. and Tanwattana, P., 2016. Heavy metal contamination characteristic of soil in WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment) dismantling community: A case study of Bangkok, Thailand. Environmental Science and Pollution Research (International), 23(17), 17026-17034.
US EPA, 1999. EPA/600/P-99/002. Washington DC.: Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment.
Phoothiwut, S. and Junyapoon, S., 2013. Size distribution of atmospheric particulates and particulate-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and characteristics of PAHs during haze period in Lampang Province, Northern Thailand. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 6, 397-405.
Wikipedia, 2021. Chatuchak District. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatuchak_District#/media/File:Amphoe_1030.svg.
TMD (Thai Meteorological Department), 2015. [online] Available at: www.tmd.go.th/en/province.php.
US EPA, 1999. Compendium Method IO-3.2, Determination of Metals in Ambient Particulate Matter Using Atomic Absorption (AA) Spectroscopy. Ohio: Center for Environmental Research Information Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency.
US EPA, 2016. Exposure Assessment Tools by Routes - Inhalation: Calculation. [online] Available at: www.epa.gov/expobox/exposure-assessment-tools-routes-inhalation.
US EPA, 2011. Exposure Factors Handbook. [online] Available at: http://ofmpub.epa. gov/eims/eimscomm.getfile?p_download_id=522996.
NSTDA, 2021. Size Thailand. National Science and Technology Development Agency, Thailand. [online] Available at: http://www.sizethailand.org/region_all.html.
US EPA, 2006. Provisional Peer Reviewed Toxicity Values for Iron and Compounds (CASRN 7439-89-6), Derivation of Subchronic and Chronic Oral RfDs. [online] Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/pprtv/documents/IronandCompounds.pdf.
Zheng, X., Zhao, W., Yan, X., Shu, T., Xiong, Q. and Chen, F., 2015. Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of airborne heavy metals collected from Beijing bus stations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(8), 9658-9671.
Li, K., Liang, T., Wang, L. and Yang, Z., 2015. Contamination and health risk assessment of heavy metals in road dust in Bayan Obo Mining Region in Inner Mongolia, North China. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 25(12), 1439-1451.
US EPA, 1992. Guidelines for Exposure Assessment. Washington, DC.: Risk Assessment Forum, Environmental Protection Agency.
Ebadian, M.A., Dua, S.K. and Guha, H., 2001. Size Distribution and Rate of Production of Airborne Particulate Matter Generated During Metal Cutting. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Environmental Management Office of Science and Technology, USA.
Bungadaeng, S., Prueksasit, T. and Siriwong, W., 2019. Inhalation exposure to respirable particulate matter among workers in relation to their e-waste open burning activities in Buriram Province, Thailand. Sustainable Environment Research, 29, 26, https://doi.org/10.1186/s42834-019-0030-7.
Lv, Y., Li, X., Xu, T.T., Cheng, T.T., Yang, X., Chen, J.M., Iinum, Y. and Herrmann, H., 2016. Size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban atmosphere: sorption mechanism and source contributions to respiratory deposition. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 16(5), 2971-2983.
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration), 2020. OSHA Annotated Table Z-1. [online] Available at: https://www.osha.gov/annotated-pels/table-z-1.
Novick, V.J., Nasiatka, J., Brodrick, C.J., Crawford, S., Pierucci, K., Reyes, V., Sambrook, J., Wrobel, S. and Yeary, J., 1996. Aerosol measurements from plasma torch cuts on stainless, carbon steel, and aluminum. Proceedings of the American Nuclear Society Tropical Meeting on Decontamination and Decommissioning, Chicago, USA, April 14-17, 1996, pp. 139-146.
Rovelli, S., Cattaneo, A., Borghi, F., Spinazzè, A., Campagnolo, D., Limbeck, A. and Cavallo, D.M., 2017. Mass concentration and size-distribution of atmospheric particulate matter in an urban environment. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 17, 1142-1155.
Ari, V., 2016. A Review of Technology of Metal Recovery from Electronic Waste. [e-book] [online] Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/books/e-waste-in-transition-from-pollution-to-resource/a-review-of-technology-of-metal-recovery-from-electronic-waste.
Dimitrakakis, E., Janz, A., Bilitewski, B. and Gidarakos, E., 2009. Determination of heavy metals and halogens in plastics from electric and electronic waste. Waste Management, 29, 2700-2706.
Zhang, W., Tian, Y., Liu, D-C., Wang, F., Yang, B. and Xu, B-Q., 2020. Experimental study on the thermal volatilization and condensation of zinc at 10 Pa and 200 Pa. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 9(3), 3590-3597.
Cadle, S.H., Mulawa, P.A. and Hunsanger, E.C., 1999. Composition of light-duty motor vehicle exhaust particulate matter in the Denver, Colorado area. Environmental Science and Technology, 33, 2328-2339.