VOC Emissions from Natural Latex Pillows: HS-SPME-GC/MS Characterization and Health Implications

Abstract

Natural rubber pillows are widely used household products; however, their production process may release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can affect indoor air quality and human health. This study aimed to identify and characterize VOCs in commercial rubber pillows and evaluate their potential health implications based on toxicological references. Ten pillow samples (P01–P10) were analyzed using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME–GC–MS). VOC identification was performed by comparison with NIST 14 and Wiley 10 mass spectral libraries, using a match score acceptance criterion of ≥ 90%. Semi-quantification was conducted based on relative peak area normalization. A total of 44 VOCs were identified and classified into nine chemical categories. Frequently detected compounds in all samples included sulfur compounds (e.g., carbon disulfide and benzothiazole); aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., toluene and styrene); alcohols (e.g., 2-ethyl-1-hexanol and linalool); aromatic compounds (e.g., benzenemethanol, α,α-dimethyl-, and diethyl phthalate); and cyclic alkenes (e.g., α-copaene and δ-cadinene). Benzothiazole and phenol, 2-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-6-methyl-, both considered toxicologically relevant compounds, were consistently detected in all samples. The presence of benzothiazole was attributed to its role in the vulcanization process, whereas amines were observed only in selected samples (P04, P06, P08). Several detected VOCs have been identified as causing potential health risks, including neurotoxicity (carbon disulfide), mucosal irritation (amines), and endocrine disruption (phthalates). These findings indicate that natural rubber pillows may act as sources of diverse VOC emissions, predominantly sulfur- and aromatic-derived compounds. Notably, this is the first study on finished pillows to provide comprehensive evaluations of VOC emissions from them rather than raw materials. Although absolute concentrations were not determined, the results highlight the need for further exposure and risk assessment studies. These findings indicate that natural rubber pillows may act as sources of diverse VOC emissions, predominantly sulfur- and aromatic-derived compounds, particularly under prolonged exposure conditions during sleep. From a practical perspective, these results suggest that manufacturers should consider emission-reduction strategies, including process optimization and the use of low-emission additives, and support the development of eco-labeled, low-VOC products in line with international indoor air quality guidelines in order to enhance consumer safety.