Effects of SCOBY Fermentation on the Phytochemical Profile, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity of Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. Leaf Infusion

M. Rifqi Efendi; Faris Fadil Darmawan; Edo Septian Roza; Alfin Najaha Pratama; Mesa Sukmadani Rusdi; Yuliawati Yuliawati; Puspa Dwi Pratiwi; Novia Tri Astuti; Vina Neldi

doi:10.65763/jfhb.2026.e269550

Authors

M. Rifqi Efendi Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6321-0318
Faris Fadil Darmawan Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5699-7019
Edo Septian Roza Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5718-1598
Alfin Najaha Pratama Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4590-8484
Mesa Sukmadani Rusdi Department of Pharmacy, Politeknik Kesehatan Kementerian Kesehatan Jambi, Jambi, 36128 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1703-5480
Yuliawati Yuliawati Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8944-2582
Puspa Dwi Pratiwi Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0582-2973
Novia Tri Astuti Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6759-1648
Vina Neldi Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, 36122 Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5913-0860

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.65763/jfhb.2026.e269550

Keywords:

Sonneratia caseolaris, Kombucha, Antioxidant, Antibacterial

Abstract

Indonesia harbors extensive mangrove ecosystems with considerable untapped potential as sources of functional bioactive ingredients. Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl., a mangrove species traditionally used in ethnomedicine, contains diverse polyphenolic compounds. However, its application as a functional beverage remains unexplored, particularly regarding how SCOBY fermentation may influence its phytochemical composition and biological activities. This study evaluated the effects of SCOBY fermentation on the physicochemical characteristics, phytochemical profile, antioxidant capacity, and antibacterial activity of S. caseolaris leaf infusion. Fermentation was conducted for 14 days, and a fermented product was compared with an unfermented sample. The fermentation process resulted in a reduction in pH. Phytochemical analysis showed an increase in total phenolic content (TPC) from 21.92±0.18 to 24.23±0.09 mg GAE/g (≈10.5%) and total flavonoid content (TFC) from 11.02±0.06 to 11.58±0.13 mg QE/g (≈5.1%). UPLC–MS profiling revealed fermentation-associated alterations in phytochemical composition, including changes in flavonoid glycosides and sterol derivatives. Antioxidant activity evaluated using the DPPH assay showed comparable IC₅₀ values between the unfermented infusion (46.05±0.12 µg/mL) and its fermented counterpart (45.26±0.26 µg/mL). Notably, the unfermented infusion exhibited no antibacterial activity, whereas the fermented product demonstrated strong inhibition against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (16±2.00 mm at 5%) and weak inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus (7.33±1.15 mm at 5%). Overall, SCOBY fermentation modified the chemical profile and generated selective antibacterial activity. These findings support the potential of fermented S. caseolaris leaf infusion as a potential functional beverage and contribute to the valorization of mangrove plant resources.

References

Abeysinghe, P.D. (2010). Antibacterial activity of some medicinal mangroves against antibiotic resistant pathogenic bacteria. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 72(2), 167. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.65019

Antolak, H., Piechota, D., & Kucharska, A. (2021). Kombucha tea—a double power of bioactive compounds from tea and symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts (SCOBY). Antioxidants, 10(10), 1541. https://doi.org/10.3390/ANTIOX10101541

Arung, E.T., Kuspradini, H., Kusuma, I.W., Bang, T.H., Yamashita, S., Katakura, Y., & Shimizu, K. (2015). Effects of isolated compound from Sonneratia caseolaris leaf: A validation of traditional utilization by melanin biosynthesis and antioxidant assays. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 5(10), 039–043. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2015.501007

Audah, K.A., Batubara, R., Julkipli, Wijaya, E., Kurniawaty, E., & Batubara, I. (2020). Antibacterial screening of mangrove extract library showed potential activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Tropical Life Science, 10(2), 105–111. https://doi.org/10.11594/JTLS.10.02.03

Audah, K.A., Ettin, J., Darmadi, J., Azizah, N.N., Anisa, A.S., Hermawan, T.D.F., & Batubara, I. (2022). Indonesian mangrove Sonneratia caseolaris leaves ethanol extract is a potential super antioxidant and anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus drug. Molecules, 27(23), 8369. https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES27238369/S1

Bandaranayake, W.M. (2002). Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangrove plants. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 10(6), 421–452. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021397624349/METRICS

Barakat, N., Beaufort, S., Rizk, Z., Bouajila, J., Taillandier, P., & El Rayess, Y. (2022). Kombucha analogues around the world: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(29), 10105–10129. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2069673

Cerri, F., & Galli, P. (2025). Phytochemistry and pharmacological potential of the mangrove plant Sonneratia caseolaris: A comprehensive review. Marine Drugs, 23(10), 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/MD23100378

Chen, C., & Liu, B.Y. (2000). Changes in major components of tea fungus metabolites during prolonged fermentation. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 89(5), 834–839. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-2672.2000.01188.X

Chen, M., Zhang, X., Wang, H., Lin, B., Wang, S., & Hu, G. (2015). Determination of rutin in rat plasma by ultra performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and application to pharmacokinetic study. Journal of Chromatographic Science, 53(4), 519–525. https://doi.org/10.1093/CHROMSCI/BMU078

Cushnie, T.T., & Lamb, A.J. (2005). Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 26(5), 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJANTIMICAG.2005.09.002

Dahibhate, N.L., Roy, U., & Kumar, K. (2018). Phytochemical screening, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of selected mangrove species. Current Bioactive Compounds, 16(2), 152–163. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573407214666180808121118

Diez-Ozaeta, I., & Astiazaran, O.J. (2022). Recent advances in kombucha tea: Microbial consortium, chemical parameters, health implications and biocellulose production. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 377, 109783. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJFOODMICRO.2022.109783

Efendi, M.R., Bakhtiar, A., Rusdi, M.S., & Putra, D.P. (2024). Comparative study of antibacterial activity of Elephantopus scaber Linn. and Elephantopus mollis Kunth. extract. Current Applied Science and Technology, 24(2), e0258350–e0258350. https://doi.org/10.55003/CAST.2023.258350

Eff, A.R.Y., Huri, H.Z., Radji, M., Mun’im, A., Suyatna, F.D., & Eden, Y. (2023). Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors activity from purified compounds fructus Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff) Boerl. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12906-023-03889-X

Halifah, P., Hartati, Rachmawaty, Yusminah, H., & Roshanida, A.R. (2019). Phytochemical Screening and antimicrobial activity from Sonneratia caseolaris fruit extract. Materials Science Forum, 967, 28–33. https://doi.org/10.4028/WWW.SCIENTIFIC.NET/MSF.967.28

Harun, A., Ab Rahim, N.E.A., Abd Jalil, M.A., Rosdi, A.M., Daud, S., Harith, S.S., ... Hassan, N.M. (2016). Comparative study of antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of root, stem and leaves of Leea indica species. Malaysian Journal of Science, 35(2), 259–274. https://doi.org/10.22452/MJS.VOL35NO2.12

Heim, K.E., Tagliaferro, A.R., & Bobilya, D.J. (2002). Flavonoid antioxidants: chemistry, metabolism and structure-activity relationships. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 13(10), 572–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-2863(02)00208-5

Ismed, F., Desti, W.N., Arifa, N., Rustini, R., & Putra, D.P. (2021). TLC-Bioautographic and LC-MS/MS detection of antimicrobial compounds from four semipolar extracts of Cladonia Species. In 2nd International Conference on Contemporary Science and Clinical Pharmacy 2021 (ICCSCP 2021) (pp. 49-59). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/AHSR.K.211105.008

Jayabalan, R., Malbaša, R.V., Lončar, E.S., Vitas, J.S., & Sathishkumar, M. (2014). A review on kombucha tea—microbiology, composition, fermentation, beneficial effects, toxicity, and tea fungus. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 13(4), 538–550. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12073

Joevanda, S., Salsabilla, N., Qiftiah, M., Sani, F., Rusdi, M.S., & Efendi, M.R. (2024). Formulation of an antibacterial peel-off gel mask from kombucha fermented with Gerga orange peel infusion (Citrus x aurantium L.). Indonesian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 4(3), 461–472. https://doi.org/10.37311/IJPE.V4I3.28769

Kalor, J.D., Wanimbo, E., & Indrayani, E. (2025). A systematic review of bioactive compounds, traditional uses, and conservation perspectives of Sonneratia caseolaris. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Bio-Medical Science, 5(5), 350–357. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijpbms/v5-i5-10

Kartikaningsih, H., Fitriana, N., Anggraeni, I.L., Semedi, B., & Pertiwi Koentjoro, M. (2025). The potential of Sonneratia caseolaris mangrove leaves extract as a bioactive food ingredient using various water extract. F1000Research, 13, 249. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.143708.4

Kathiresan, K., & Bingham, B.L. (2001). Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology, 40, 81–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2881(01)40003-4

Kundu, P., Debnath, S.L., Ahad, M.F., Devnath, H.S., Saha, L., Karmakar, U.K., & Sadhu, S.K. (2023). Exploration of in vivo and in vitro biological effects of Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) fruits supported by molecular docking and ADMET study. BioMed Research International, 2023(1), 4522446. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/4522446

Laavanya, D., Shirkole, S., & Balasubramanian, P. (2021). Current challenges, applications and future perspectives of SCOBY cellulose of kombucha fermentation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 295, 126454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126454

Leal, J.M., Suárez, L.V., Jayabalan, R., Oros, J.H., & Escalante-Aburto, A. (2018). A review on health benefits of kombucha nutritional compounds and metabolites. CyTA - Journal of Food, 16(1), 390–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2017.1410499

Liu, B., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Chen, X., Jin, X., & Luo, X. (2023). Review of compounds and activities from mangrove Sonneratia genus and their endophytes. Journal of Holistic Integrative Pharmacy, 4(3), 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhip.2023.11.003

Ministry of Health Indonesia. (2017). Farmakope Herbal Indonesia (2nd ed.). Directorate General of Pharmaceutical and Medical Devices, Ministry of Health. https://farmalkes.kemkes.go.id/unduh/farmakope-herbal-indonesia-edisi-ii-tahun-2017/

Mizooku, Y., Yoshikawa, M., Tsuneyoshi, T., & Arakawa, R. (2003). Analysis of oxidized epigallocatechin gallate by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 17(16), 1915–1918. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.1135

Nguyen, L.T.T., Nguyen, T.T., Nguyen, H.N., & Bui, Q.T.P. (2024). Analysis of active compounds and bioactivity of leaves extracts of Sonneratia species. Engineering Reports, 6(10), e12870. https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.12870

Pagarra, H., Rahman, R.A., Hartati, Rachmawaty, Hala, Y., & Esivan, S.M.M. (2022). Phytochemical screening, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity from Sonneratia caseolaris leaves extract. Jurnal Teknologi, 84(5), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.11113/jurnalteknologi.v84.17647

Rao, G.M.N. (2020). Flora of mangrove species utilized for ethnomedicinal practices in Gautami Godavari Estuary, Andhra Pradesh, India. In Khasim, S.M., Long, C., Thammasiri, K., & Lutken, H. (Eds.), Medicinal Plants: Biodiversity, Sustainable Utilization and Conservation (pp. 97–107). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1636-8_5

Rice-Evans, C.A., Miller, N.J., & Paganga, G. (1996). Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 20(7), 933–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/0891-5849(95)02227-9

Rusdi, M.S., Febrianti, T.L., Al-Annur, Y., Sita, S.K., J, S.A., Ardita, M., ... Sugiarti. (2025). Antioxidant and antihyperglycemic effects of bay leaf (Syzygium polyanthum [Wight.] Walp.) kombucha in alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Science Essence Journal, 41(2), 168–179. https://ejournals.swu.ac.th/index.php/sej/article/view/17002

Sadhu, S.K., Ahmed, F., Ohtsuki, T., & Ishibashi, M. (2006). Flavonoids from Sonneratia caseolaris. Journal of Natural Medicines, 60(3), 264–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-006-0029-3

Simlai, A., Rai, A., Mishra, S., Mukherjee, K., & Roy, A. (2014). Antimicrobial and antioxidative activities in the bark extracts of Sonneratia caseolaris, a mangrove plant. EXCLI Journal, 13, 997. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4464296/

Sreeramulu, G., Zhu, Y., & Knol, W. (2000). Kombucha fermentation and its antimicrobial activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(6), 2589–2594. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf991333m

Tran, T. khanh, Ha, P.T.T., Henry, R.J., Nguyen, D.N.T., Tuyen, P.T., & Liem, N.T. (2024). Polyphenol contents, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc–ms) and antibacterial activity of methanol extract and fractions of Sonneratia caseolaris fruits from Ben Tre province in Vietnam. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 34(1), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2304.04019

Villarreal-Soto, S.A., Beaufort, S., Bouajila, J., Souchard, J.P., & Taillandier, P. (2018). Understanding kombucha tea fermentation: A review. Journal of Food Science, 83(3), 580–588. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14068

Wang, Z., Wu, Z., Zuo, G., Lim, S.S., & Yan, H. (2021). Defatted seeds of Oenothera biennis as a potential functional food ingredient for diabetes. Foods, 10(3), 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10030538

Yan, G., Zheng, P., Weng, S., Zhang, Y., Xu, W., Luo, J., ... Sun, B. (2022). Comparison of chemical compositions and antioxidant activities of fresh and dried Rosa roxburghii Tratt fruit. Natural Product Communications, 17(4), 1934578X221095350. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578x221095350

Zhang, Y.M., & Rock, C.O. (2004). Evaluation of epigallocatechin gallate and related plant polyphenols as inhibitors of the FabG and FabI reductases of bacterial type ii fatty-acid synthase. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 279(30), 30994–31001. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m403697200